Journal of Woman in Culture and Arts

Journal of Woman in Culture and Arts

Intercultural study of Attitudes to Gender Roles, Parental Values and Parental Burnout: the case of Iran and Afghan Refugee

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors
Zohreh Khosravi 1
Seyyedeh Fatemeh Mousavi 2
Zahra Khavari 3
Maryam Khavari 4
1 Professor of clinical psychology, Department of Psychology, Alzahra University
2 Department of Psychology, Women Research Center, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
3 Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
4 MA in Psychology, Alzahra University
10.22059/jwica.2022.351319.1861
Abstract
The current research was administered with the aim of intercultural investigating the attitudes to gender roles, parental values ‎, and parental burnout‎ in two groups of Iranian and Afghan parents. The statistical population of this study was two groups of Iranian and Afghan parents living in Tehran City those 398 parents including 199 Afghan parents (97 fathers and 102 mothers) and 199 Iranian parents (93 fathers and 106 mothers) living in Tehran were selected by convenient and voluntary from different regions of the city. The research instruments included the Attitudes to Gender Roles Questionnaire, Goals and Values in Adults Questionnaire, and Parental Burnout Assessment. The results showed that two groups of Iranian and Afghan parents significantly differed in parental burnout, and regarding parental values in power and achieves, agency and self-direct, and benevolence & prosocial. The results showed there was a significant difference between mothers and fathers in attitudes to gender roles and all of the values except agency and self-direct. In the interaction of migration and gender effects, the results showed Iranian fathers had a high score in specific gender roles, Afghan fathers had a high score in traditional gender roles and Iranian mothers had a high score in androgynous gender roles. Also, Afghan fathers care more about power and achieve separateness values than Iranian fathers. Cultural similarities led to the migration of Afghan families despite long-term residence in the destination community, which was companied by the maintenance of Afghan cultural values and traditions, so that the status of parents, traditional gender roles, and the sense of being unique as important values is encouraged in their children.

The component of parenting and the quality of parent-child interactions, the values and goals of parents in the children of immigrant families in the context of cultural adaptation and acculturation (influence and impression of the destination culture) is a subject that can be studied.
Keywords
gender roles
parental values
parental burnout
intercultural
Subjects

 

آزادارمکی، تقی (1390). جامعه‏شناسی خانوادۀ ایرانی. تهران: سمت.

ایرنا (1397). جمعیت افغان‏ها در ایران دو میلیون و 400 هزار نفر اعلام شد. خبرگزاری جمهوری اسلامی ایران. تاریخ ثبت خبر 29/03/97. http://www.irna.ir/fa/News/82946901

بالاخانی، قادر و ملکی، امیر (1396). بررسی ظهور فردگرایی در عرصۀ خانواده (مطالعۀ موردی: شهروندان تهرانی). مطالعات راهبردی زنان، 20(77)، 7-34.

حلی‏ساز، مریم، مظاهری، محمدعلی، پناغی، لیلی و حسنی، فریبا (1394). ارزش‏های فرزندپروری مادران کودکان 3-5 ساله: مطالعه‏ای پدیدارشناسانه. راهبرد فرهنگ، 29، 121-148.

رحیمی، احمد و آزادفلاح، پرویز (1397). مقایسۀ علاقۀ اجتماعی، خودشیفتگی و رضایت زناشویی در زوجین ایرانی و افغانستانی. مجلۀ روان‏شناسی بالینی، 10(2)، 51-58.

سالنامۀ آمار ایران (1395). مرکز آمار ایران. https://www.amar.org.ir

سجادپور، فرزانه و جمالی سوسفی، ابراهیم (1395). زنان افغان مهاجر و چالش‏های بازگشت به وطن (مطالعۀ موردی: زنان مهاجر افغان ساکن شهر مشهد). پژوهش‏های انسان‏شناسی ایران، 6(2)، 131-151.

قادری، طاهره و القونه، زهرا (1396). بررسی فردگرایی خودخواهانه و عوامل مرتبط با آن در بین دانشجویان دانشگاه شیراز (با تأکید بر طبقۀ آن‏ها). فصلنامۀ علوم اجتماعی، 26(79)، 1-31.

قاسمی، وحید و امیری، مریم (1389). سازگاری اجتماعی و فرهنگی مهاجران ایرانی در آمریکا. علوم اجتماعی، 4(8)، 131-158.

کنعانی، محمدامین و بخشی، سعادت (1393). گسترش فردگرایی و مسئلۀ کم فرزندآوری: مطالعه‏ای در شهر رشت. نامۀ انجمن جمعیت‏شناسی ایران، 9(18)، 7-30.

محمودیان، حسین (1386). مهاجرت افغان‏ها به ایران: تغییر در ویژگی‏های اقتصادی، اجتماعی و جمعیتی و انطباق با جامعۀ مقصد. مجلۀ نامۀ انجمن جمعیت‏شناسی ایران، 4، 42-69.

معیدفر، سعید و صبوری‏خسروشاهی، حبیب (1389). بررسی میزان فردگرایی فرزندان در خانواده. پژوهشنامۀ علوم اجتماعی گرمسار، 4(4)، 93-110.

موسوی، سیده فاطمه، جعفری مالیدره، فیروزه، دهشیری، غلامرضا و روشنی، شهره (1400). تأثیر اتحاد والدین بر تنظیم یادگیری و شایستگی اجتماعی نوجوانان دختر: نقش میانجی مشارکت والدین. مشاورۀ کاربردی، 11(2)، 21-44. https://doi.org/10.22055/JAC.2021.38430.1829

موسوی، سیده فاطمه و قافله‏باشی، مهدیه (1392). بررسی جایگاه و نگرش به فرزندآوری در خانواده‏های جوان شهر قزوین. مطالعات زن و خانواده، 1(2)، 111-134.

موسوی، سیده فاطمه (1398). فرسودگی و خستگی ناشی از وظایف والدینی: نقش متغیرهای زمینه‏ای والد-فرزند. مطالعات ناتوانی، 9، 1-9.

میرزایی، حسین (1384). بررسی جامعه‏شناختی فردگرایی در ایران (با تأکید بر پیمایش ساکنین شهر تهران). رسالۀ دکتری جامعه‏شناسی. دانشگاه تهران.

Abbasi-Shavazi, M. J., Sadeghi, R., Mahmoudian, H., & Jamshidiha. Gh. R. (2012). Marriage and family formation of the second-generation Afghans in Iran: Insights from a qualitative study. International Migration Review, 46(4), 828–860.

Banaszak, L. A. & Leighley, J. E. (1991). How employment affects women’s gender attitudes. The workplace as a locus of contextual effects. Political Geography Quarterly, 10(2), 174-185.

Bergh, J. (2006). Gender attitudes and modernization processes. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19(1), 5-23.

Bhatia, S., & Ram, A. (2009). Theorizing identity in transnational and diaspora cultures: A critical approach to acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 140-149.

Birman, D. (2006). Acculturation gap and family adjustment: Findings with Soviet Jewish refugees in the United States and implications for measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37(5), 568-589.

Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Cultural approaches to parenting. Parenting, 12(2-3), 212-221.

Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.). (1991). Cultural approaches to parenting. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bornstein, M. H., Bohr Y. & Hamel. K. (2020). Immigration, Acculturation, and Parenting. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Bornstein MH, topic ed. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/immigration/according-experts/immigration-acculturation-and-parenting. Updated: December 2020. Accessed December 1, 2022.

Bornstein, M. H., Cote, L. R., Haynes, O. M., Suwalsky, J. T. D., & Bakeman, R. (2012). Modalities of infant mother interaction in Japanese, Japanese American Immigrant, and European American dyads. Child Development, 83(6).

Boyden, J. (2002). Children affected by armed conflict in South Asia: A review of trends and issues identified through secondary research. Afghan Digital Libraries.

Brewster, K. L. & Padavic, I. (2000). Change in Gender-Ideology, 1977–1996: The Contributions of Intracohort Change and Population Turnover. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 477–487.

Chao, R. K. (1995). Chinese and European American cultural models of the self reflected in mothers’ childrearing beliefs. Ethos, 23(3), 328-354.

Constantin, A., & Voicu, M. (2015). Attitudes towards gender roles in cross-cultural surveys: Content validity and cross-cultural measurement invariance. Social Indicators Research, 123(3), 733-751.

Constantin, V. A. (2015). Attitudes towards gender roles. Institutions, culture or/and individual factors shaping the attitudes towards gender roles? Doctoral dissertation. Universität zu Köln.

Cunningham, M., Beutel, A. M., Barber, J. S., & Thornton, A. (2005). Reciprocal relationships between attitudes about gender and socicontexts during young adulthood. Social Science Research, 34(4), 862-892.

Deater-deckard, K. (2014). Parenting Stress. Yale, MI: University Press.

Duncan, S. (1994). Theorising differences in patriarchy. Environment and Planning A, 26(8), 1177-1194.

Echavez, C. R., Mosawi, S., & Pilongo, L. W. (2016). The Other Side of Gender Inequality: Men and Masculinities in Afghanistan. Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU).

Geisler, E., & Kreyenfeld, M. (2011). ‘Against all odds: Fathers’ use of parental leave in Germany’, Journal of European Social Policy 21(1): 88-99.

Greenfield, P. M. (1994). Independence and interdependence as developmental scripts: Implications for theory, research, and practice. Cross-cultural roots of minority child development, 1-37.

Heger Boyle, E., & Ali, A. (2010). Culture, structure, and the refugee experience in Somali immigrant family transformation. International Migration, 48(1), 47-79.

Hynie, M., Guruge, S., & Shakya, Y. B. (2013). Family relationships of Afghan, Karen and Sudanese refugee youth. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 44(3), 11-28.

Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2007): Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: the human development sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Jakobsson, N., & Kotsadam, A. (2010). Do attitudes toward gender equality really differ between Norway and Sweden?. Journal of European Social Policy, 20(2), 142-159.

Jelen, T. G. (1988). The effects of gender role stereotypes on political attitudes. The Social Science Journal, 25(3), 353-365.

Kagitcibasi, C. (2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context: Implications for self and family. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 36(4), 403-422.

Kane, E. W. (1998). ‘Men's and Women's Beliefs About Gender Inequality: Family Ties, Dependence, and Agreement’, Sociological Forum 13: 611-637.

Kasuya, R. T., Polgar-Bailey, M. P., & MPH Robbyn Takeuchi, M. S. W. (2000). Caregiver burden and burnout a guide for primary care physicians. Postgraduate Medicine, 108(7), 119.

Krais, B. (2006). Gender, sociological theory and Bourdieu’s sociology of practice. Theory, Culture & Society, 23(6), 119-134.

Kremer, M. (2007). How Welfare States Care: Culture, Gender and Parenting in Europe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Kroska, A., & Elman, C. (2009). Change in attitudes about employed mothers: Exposure, interests, and gender ideology discrepancies. Social Science Research, 38(2), 366-382.

Kusserow, A. S. (1999). De‐homogenizing American individualism: Socializing hard and soft individualism in Manhattan and Queens. Ethos, 27(2), 210-234.

Kwak, K. (2003). Adolescents and their parents: A review of intergenerational family relations for immigrant and non-immigrant families. Human development, 46(2-3), 115-136.

Larsen, K. S., & Long, E. (1988). Attitudes toward sex-roles: traditional or egalitarian? Sex Roles, 19, 1–12.

Le Vigouroux, S., & Scola, C. (2018). Differences in parental burnout: Influence of demographic factors and personality of parents and children. Frontiers in psychology, 9:887, 1-8. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00887

Lee, K. S., Alwin, D. F. & Tufis, P. A. (2007). Beliefs about Women’s Labour in the Reunified Germany, 1991–2004. European Sociological Review, 23(4), 487–503.

Lee, K. S., Tufiş, P. A., & Alwin, D. F. (2010). Separate spheres or increasing equality? Changing gender beliefs in postwar Japan. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(1), 184-201.

LeVine, R. A. (2003). Childhood socialization: Comparative studies of parenting, learning and educational change. University of Hong Kong.

Lu, Y. H. (1993). Sex-role attitudes and the employment of married women---a Detroit area study. Journal of Women and Gender Studies, 4, 137-174.

Luecher, J. L., Dede, D. E., Giten, J. C., Fennel, E., & Maria, B. L. (1999). Parental burden, coping and family functioning in primary caregivers of children with joubert syndrome. Journal of Child Neurology, 14, 642-648.

MacInnes, J. (1998). Analysing patriarchy capitalism and women's employment in Europe. Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 11(2), 227-248.

McAdoo, H. P. (2002). Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments. Sage.

Merrill, L., Paxson, D., & Tobey, T. (2006). An introduction to Afghanistan culture. pp: 7-9.

Mikolajczak, M., Brianda, M. E., Avalosse, H., & Roskam, I. (2018). Consequences of parental burnout: Its specific effect on child neglect and violence. Child abuse & neglect, 80, 134-145.

Mikolajczak, M., Raes, M. E., Avalosse, H., & Roskam, I. (2018). Exhausted parents: sociodemographic, child-related, parent-related, parenting and family-functioning correlates of parental burnout. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(2), 602-614.

Mousavi, S. F., Mikolajczak, M., & Roskam, I. (2020). Parental burnout in Iran: Psychometric properties of the Persian (Farsi) version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2020(174), 85-100.

Muller P.H.A.M. (2010). Scattered Families: Transnational family life of Afghan refugees in the Netherlands in the light of the human rights based protection of the family. Antwerp/Oxford/Portland: Intersentia.

Ogbu, J. U. (1993). Differences in cultural frame of reference. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 16, 483–506.

Pfau-Effinger, B. (2017). Development of culture, welfare states and women's employment in Europe. Routledge.

Raphael, J. L., Zhang, Y., Liu, H., & Giardino, A. P. (2010). Parenting stress in US families: Implications for pediatric healthcare utilization. Child: care, health and development, 36(2), 216-224.

Rondo, P., Ferreira, R. F., & Nogueira, F. (2003). Maternal psychological stress and distress as predictor of low birth weight. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57, 266- 72.

Roskam, I., Aguiar, J., Akgun, E., Arikan, G., Artavia, M., Avalosse, H., ... & Mikolajczak, M. (2021). Parental burnout around the globe: A 42-country study. Affective Science, 2(1), 58-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-020-00028-4

Roskam, I., Brianda, M. E., & Mikolajczak, M. (2018). A step forward in the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout: The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). Frontiers in psychology, 9.

Roskam, I., Raes, M. E., & Mikolajczak, M. (2017). Exhausted parents: development and preliminary validation of the parental burnout inventory. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 163.

Rostami-Povey, E. (2007). Afghan Women: Identity and Invasion. London: Zed.

Russo, A., Lewis, B., Joyce, A., Crockett, B., & Luchters, S. (2015). A qualitative exploration of the emotional wellbeing and support needs of new mothers from Afghanistan living in Melbourne, Australia. BMC pregnancy and childbirth, 15(1), 197.

Schwartz, S. H. (1990). Individualism-collectivism: Critique and proposed refinements. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 21(2), 139-157.

Sherkat, D. (2000) That They Be Keepers of the Home”: The Effect of Conservative Religion on Early and Late Transition into Housewifery. Review of Religious Research 41 (3): 344 – 358.

Solomon, M. (1993). Transmission of cultural goals: Social network influences on infant socialization. In J. Demick, K. Bursik, and R. DiBiase (Eds.), Parental Development (pp. 135-156). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Suizzo, M. A. (2007). Parents' goals and values for children: Dimensions of independence and interdependence across four U.S. Ethnic groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(4), 506-530.

The U.S. Library of Congress. (2013) “A Country Study: Afghanistan.” Afghanistan: Country Studies - Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html. Accessed on 6 January 2019.

Trommsdorff, G. (2006). Parent-child relations over the life-span. A cross-cultural perspective. Parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent-child relations. A cross-cultural perspective, 143-183.

Turton, D. & Marsden, P. (2002). “Taking Refugees for a Ride? The Politics of Refugee Return to Afghanistan”. Kabul: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU).

UNICEF. (2011). Afghanistan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. Central Statistics Organization.

Van Bakel, H. J., Van Engen, M. L., & Peters, P. (2018). Validity of the Parental Burnout Inventory among Dutch Employees. Frontiers in psychology, 9.

Voicu, M., & Constantin, A. (2016). Couple’s Status on Labour Market and their Attitudes towards Gender Roles. Revista de Cercetare si Interventie Sociala, 54.

Walby, S. (1994). Methodological and theoretical issues in the comparative analysis of gender relations in Western Europe. Environment and Planning A, 26(9), 1339-1354.

Wilensky, H. L. (2002) Rich democracies: Political economy, public policy and performance. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.

Williams, N. (2010). Establishing the boundaries and building bridges: a literature review on ecological theory: implications for research into the refugee parenting experience. Journal of Child Health Care, 14(1), 35-51.

Wrigley, J. (2003). Education and gender equality. Routledge.

Yan, E. (2014). Abuse of older persons with dementia by family caregivers: results of a 6-month prospective study in Hong Kong. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 29, 1018–1027.

 

آزادارمکی، تقی (1390). جامعه‏شناسی خانوادۀ ایرانی. تهران: سمت.

ایرنا (1397). جمعیت افغان‏ها در ایران دو میلیون و 400 هزار نفر اعلام شد. خبرگزاری جمهوری اسلامی ایران. تاریخ ثبت خبر 29/03/97. http://www.irna.ir/fa/News/82946901

بالاخانی، قادر و ملکی، امیر (1396). بررسی ظهور فردگرایی در عرصۀ خانواده (مطالعۀ موردی: شهروندان تهرانی). مطالعات راهبردی زنان، 20(77)، 7-34.

حلی‏ساز، مریم، مظاهری، محمدعلی، پناغی، لیلی و حسنی، فریبا (1394). ارزش‏های فرزندپروری مادران کودکان 3-5 ساله: مطالعه‏ای پدیدارشناسانه. راهبرد فرهنگ، 29، 121-148.

رحیمی، احمد و آزادفلاح، پرویز (1397). مقایسۀ علاقۀ اجتماعی، خودشیفتگی و رضایت زناشویی در زوجین ایرانی و افغانستانی. مجلۀ روان‏شناسی بالینی، 10(2)، 51-58.

سالنامۀ آمار ایران (1395). مرکز آمار ایران. https://www.amar.org.ir

سجادپور، فرزانه و جمالی سوسفی، ابراهیم (1395). زنان افغان مهاجر و چالش‏های بازگشت به وطن (مطالعۀ موردی: زنان مهاجر افغان ساکن شهر مشهد). پژوهش‏های انسان‏شناسی ایران، 6(2)، 131-151.

قادری، طاهره و القونه، زهرا (1396). بررسی فردگرایی خودخواهانه و عوامل مرتبط با آن در بین دانشجویان دانشگاه شیراز (با تأکید بر طبقۀ آن‏ها). فصلنامۀ علوم اجتماعی، 26(79)، 1-31.

قاسمی، وحید و امیری، مریم (1389). سازگاری اجتماعی و فرهنگی مهاجران ایرانی در آمریکا. علوم اجتماعی، 4(8)، 131-158.

کنعانی، محمدامین و بخشی، سعادت (1393). گسترش فردگرایی و مسئلۀ کم فرزندآوری: مطالعه‏ای در شهر رشت. نامۀ انجمن جمعیت‏شناسی ایران، 9(18)، 7-30.

محمودیان، حسین (1386). مهاجرت افغان‏ها به ایران: تغییر در ویژگی‏های اقتصادی، اجتماعی و جمعیتی و انطباق با جامعۀ مقصد. مجلۀ نامۀ انجمن جمعیت‏شناسی ایران، 4، 42-69.

معیدفر، سعید و صبوری‏خسروشاهی، حبیب (1389). بررسی میزان فردگرایی فرزندان در خانواده. پژوهشنامۀ علوم اجتماعی گرمسار، 4(4)، 93-110.

موسوی، سیده فاطمه، جعفری مالیدره، فیروزه، دهشیری، غلامرضا و روشنی، شهره (1400). تأثیر اتحاد والدین بر تنظیم یادگیری و شایستگی اجتماعی نوجوانان دختر: نقش میانجی مشارکت والدین. مشاورۀ کاربردی، 11(2)، 21-44. https://doi.org/10.22055/JAC.2021.38430.1829

موسوی، سیده فاطمه و قافله‏باشی، مهدیه (1392). بررسی جایگاه و نگرش به فرزندآوری در خانواده‏های جوان شهر قزوین. مطالعات زن و خانواده، 1(2)، 111-134.

موسوی، سیده فاطمه (1398). فرسودگی و خستگی ناشی از وظایف والدینی: نقش متغیرهای زمینه‏ای والد-فرزند. مطالعات ناتوانی، 9، 1-9.

میرزایی، حسین (1384). بررسی جامعه‏شناختی فردگرایی در ایران (با تأکید بر پیمایش ساکنین شهر تهران). رسالۀ دکتری جامعه‏شناسی. دانشگاه تهران.

Abbasi-Shavazi, M. J., Sadeghi, R., Mahmoudian, H., & Jamshidiha. Gh. R. (2012). Marriage and family formation of the second-generation Afghans in Iran: Insights from a qualitative study. International Migration Review, 46(4), 828–860.

Banaszak, L. A. & Leighley, J. E. (1991). How employment affects women’s gender attitudes. The workplace as a locus of contextual effects. Political Geography Quarterly, 10(2), 174-185.

Bergh, J. (2006). Gender attitudes and modernization processes. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19(1), 5-23.

Bhatia, S., & Ram, A. (2009). Theorizing identity in transnational and diaspora cultures: A critical approach to acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 140-149.

Birman, D. (2006). Acculturation gap and family adjustment: Findings with Soviet Jewish refugees in the United States and implications for measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37(5), 568-589.

Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Cultural approaches to parenting. Parenting, 12(2-3), 212-221.

Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.). (1991). Cultural approaches to parenting. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bornstein, M. H., Bohr Y. & Hamel. K. (2020). Immigration, Acculturation, and Parenting. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Bornstein MH, topic ed. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/immigration/according-experts/immigration-acculturation-and-parenting. Updated: December 2020. Accessed December 1, 2022.

Bornstein, M. H., Cote, L. R., Haynes, O. M., Suwalsky, J. T. D., & Bakeman, R. (2012). Modalities of infant mother interaction in Japanese, Japanese American Immigrant, and European American dyads. Child Development, 83(6).

Boyden, J. (2002). Children affected by armed conflict in South Asia: A review of trends and issues identified through secondary research. Afghan Digital Libraries.

Brewster, K. L. & Padavic, I. (2000). Change in Gender-Ideology, 1977–1996: The Contributions of Intracohort Change and Population Turnover. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 477–487.

Chao, R. K. (1995). Chinese and European American cultural models of the self reflected in mothers’ childrearing beliefs. Ethos, 23(3), 328-354.

Constantin, A., & Voicu, M. (2015). Attitudes towards gender roles in cross-cultural surveys: Content validity and cross-cultural measurement invariance. Social Indicators Research, 123(3), 733-751.

Constantin, V. A. (2015). Attitudes towards gender roles. Institutions, culture or/and individual factors shaping the attitudes towards gender roles? Doctoral dissertation. Universität zu Köln.

Cunningham, M., Beutel, A. M., Barber, J. S., & Thornton, A. (2005). Reciprocal relationships between attitudes about gender and socicontexts during young adulthood. Social Science Research, 34(4), 862-892.

Deater-deckard, K. (2014). Parenting Stress. Yale, MI: University Press.

Duncan, S. (1994). Theorising differences in patriarchy. Environment and Planning A, 26(8), 1177-1194.

Echavez, C. R., Mosawi, S., & Pilongo, L. W. (2016). The Other Side of Gender Inequality: Men and Masculinities in Afghanistan. Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU).

Geisler, E., & Kreyenfeld, M. (2011). ‘Against all odds: Fathers’ use of parental leave in Germany’, Journal of European Social Policy 21(1): 88-99.

Greenfield, P. M. (1994). Independence and interdependence as developmental scripts: Implications for theory, research, and practice. Cross-cultural roots of minority child development, 1-37.

Heger Boyle, E., & Ali, A. (2010). Culture, structure, and the refugee experience in Somali immigrant family transformation. International Migration, 48(1), 47-79.

Hynie, M., Guruge, S., & Shakya, Y. B. (2013). Family relationships of Afghan, Karen and Sudanese refugee youth. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 44(3), 11-28.

Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2007): Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: the human development sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Jakobsson, N., & Kotsadam, A. (2010). Do attitudes toward gender equality really differ between Norway and Sweden?. Journal of European Social Policy, 20(2), 142-159.

Jelen, T. G. (1988). The effects of gender role stereotypes on political attitudes. The Social Science Journal, 25(3), 353-365.

Kagitcibasi, C. (2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context: Implications for self and family. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 36(4), 403-422.

Kane, E. W. (1998). ‘Men's and Women's Beliefs About Gender Inequality: Family Ties, Dependence, and Agreement’, Sociological Forum 13: 611-637.

Kasuya, R. T., Polgar-Bailey, M. P., & MPH Robbyn Takeuchi, M. S. W. (2000). Caregiver burden and burnout a guide for primary care physicians. Postgraduate Medicine, 108(7), 119.

Krais, B. (2006). Gender, sociological theory and Bourdieu’s sociology of practice. Theory, Culture & Society, 23(6), 119-134.

Kremer, M. (2007). How Welfare States Care: Culture, Gender and Parenting in Europe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Kroska, A., & Elman, C. (2009). Change in attitudes about employed mothers: Exposure, interests, and gender ideology discrepancies. Social Science Research, 38(2), 366-382.

Kusserow, A. S. (1999). De‐homogenizing American individualism: Socializing hard and soft individualism in Manhattan and Queens. Ethos, 27(2), 210-234.

Kwak, K. (2003). Adolescents and their parents: A review of intergenerational family relations for immigrant and non-immigrant families. Human development, 46(2-3), 115-136.

Larsen, K. S., & Long, E. (1988). Attitudes toward sex-roles: traditional or egalitarian? Sex Roles, 19, 1–12.

Le Vigouroux, S., & Scola, C. (2018). Differences in parental burnout: Influence of demographic factors and personality of parents and children. Frontiers in psychology, 9:887, 1-8. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00887

Lee, K. S., Alwin, D. F. & Tufis, P. A. (2007). Beliefs about Women’s Labour in the Reunified Germany, 1991–2004. European Sociological Review, 23(4), 487–503.

Lee, K. S., Tufiş, P. A., & Alwin, D. F. (2010). Separate spheres or increasing equality? Changing gender beliefs in postwar Japan. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(1), 184-201.

LeVine, R. A. (2003). Childhood socialization: Comparative studies of parenting, learning and educational change. University of Hong Kong.

Lu, Y. H. (1993). Sex-role attitudes and the employment of married women---a Detroit area study. Journal of Women and Gender Studies, 4, 137-174.

Luecher, J. L., Dede, D. E., Giten, J. C., Fennel, E., & Maria, B. L. (1999). Parental burden, coping and family functioning in primary caregivers of children with joubert syndrome. Journal of Child Neurology, 14, 642-648.

MacInnes, J. (1998). Analysing patriarchy capitalism and women's employment in Europe. Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 11(2), 227-248.

McAdoo, H. P. (2002). Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments. Sage.

Merrill, L., Paxson, D., & Tobey, T. (2006). An introduction to Afghanistan culture. pp: 7-9.

Mikolajczak, M., Brianda, M. E., Avalosse, H., & Roskam, I. (2018). Consequences of parental burnout: Its specific effect on child neglect and violence. Child abuse & neglect, 80, 134-145.

Mikolajczak, M., Raes, M. E., Avalosse, H., & Roskam, I. (2018). Exhausted parents: sociodemographic, child-related, parent-related, parenting and family-functioning correlates of parental burnout. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(2), 602-614.

Mousavi, S. F., Mikolajczak, M., & Roskam, I. (2020). Parental burnout in Iran: Psychometric properties of the Persian (Farsi) version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2020(174), 85-100.

Muller P.H.A.M. (2010). Scattered Families: Transnational family life of Afghan refugees in the Netherlands in the light of the human rights based protection of the family. Antwerp/Oxford/Portland: Intersentia.

Ogbu, J. U. (1993). Differences in cultural frame of reference. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 16, 483–506.

Pfau-Effinger, B. (2017). Development of culture, welfare states and women's employment in Europe. Routledge.

Raphael, J. L., Zhang, Y., Liu, H., & Giardino, A. P. (2010). Parenting stress in US families: Implications for pediatric healthcare utilization. Child: care, health and development, 36(2), 216-224.

Rondo, P., Ferreira, R. F., & Nogueira, F. (2003). Maternal psychological stress and distress as predictor of low birth weight. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57, 266- 72.

Roskam, I., Aguiar, J., Akgun, E., Arikan, G., Artavia, M., Avalosse, H., ... & Mikolajczak, M. (2021). Parental burnout around the globe: A 42-country study. Affective Science, 2(1), 58-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-020-00028-4

Roskam, I., Brianda, M. E., & Mikolajczak, M. (2018). A step forward in the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout: The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). Frontiers in psychology, 9.

Roskam, I., Raes, M. E., & Mikolajczak, M. (2017). Exhausted parents: development and preliminary validation of the parental burnout inventory. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 163.

Rostami-Povey, E. (2007). Afghan Women: Identity and Invasion. London: Zed.

Russo, A., Lewis, B., Joyce, A., Crockett, B., & Luchters, S. (2015). A qualitative exploration of the emotional wellbeing and support needs of new mothers from Afghanistan living in Melbourne, Australia. BMC pregnancy and childbirth, 15(1), 197.

Schwartz, S. H. (1990). Individualism-collectivism: Critique and proposed refinements. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 21(2), 139-157.

Sherkat, D. (2000) That They Be Keepers of the Home”: The Effect of Conservative Religion on Early and Late Transition into Housewifery. Review of Religious Research 41 (3): 344 – 358.

Solomon, M. (1993). Transmission of cultural goals: Social network influences on infant socialization. In J. Demick, K. Bursik, and R. DiBiase (Eds.), Parental Development (pp. 135-156). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Suizzo, M. A. (2007). Parents' goals and values for children: Dimensions of independence and interdependence across four U.S. Ethnic groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(4), 506-530.

The U.S. Library of Congress. (2013) “A Country Study: Afghanistan.” Afghanistan: Country Studies - Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html. Accessed on 6 January 2019.

Trommsdorff, G. (2006). Parent-child relations over the life-span. A cross-cultural perspective. Parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent-child relations. A cross-cultural perspective, 143-183.

Turton, D. & Marsden, P. (2002). “Taking Refugees for a Ride? The Politics of Refugee Return to Afghanistan”. Kabul: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU).

UNICEF. (2011). Afghanistan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. Central Statistics Organization.

Van Bakel, H. J., Van Engen, M. L., & Peters, P. (2018). Validity of the Parental Burnout Inventory among Dutch Employees. Frontiers in psychology, 9.

Voicu, M., & Constantin, A. (2016). Couple’s Status on Labour Market and their Attitudes towards Gender Roles. Revista de Cercetare si Interventie Sociala, 54.

Walby, S. (1994). Methodological and theoretical issues in the comparative analysis of gender relations in Western Europe. Environment and Planning A, 26(9), 1339-1354.

Wilensky, H. L. (2002) Rich democracies: Political economy, public policy and performance. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.

Williams, N. (2010). Establishing the boundaries and building bridges: a literature review on ecological theory: implications for research into the refugee parenting experience. Journal of Child Health Care, 14(1), 35-51.

Wrigley, J. (2003). Education and gender equality. Routledge.

Yan, E. (2014). Abuse of older persons with dementia by family caregivers: results of a 6-month prospective study in Hong Kong. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 29, 1018–1027.

Journal of Woman in Culture and Arts
Volume 15, Issue 3
Autumn 2023
Pages 401-429